Kashmir Shaivism and Lingayata Shaivism: Background

Preface

What is the value of two great expressions of Shaivism if they exist and thrive in isolation, without engaging with each other? How can non-interacting communities contribute to the sustained, coexistent growth of the deep-rooted philosophies they uphold?

Kashmiri Trika Shaivism and Karnataka’s Lingayata Shaivism—two profound traditions separated by vast geographical distance—rarely interact and remain largely unaware of each other’s existence. It is essential to recognize, understand, and bridge these two long-standing and well-established forms of Shaivism.

By bringing to light both their shared beliefs and distinct practices, we can foster greater awareness and appreciation between the Shaivite communities of Kashmir and Karnataka. Encouraging intellectual exchanges on philosophy, culture, and tradition will create opportunities for meaningful dialogue, ultimately strengthening unity and a sense of common identity despite physical distance.

This article explores the commonalities and differences in the fundamental philosophies of two great forms of Shaivism, aiming to spark a dialogue between them. This is the first in a series of writings aimed at exploring the rich heritage, traditions, and philosophies of both schools of Shaivism.

1. Shiva and Shaivism

The Meaning of Shiva

The word Shiva holds deep significance:

. शिवः शिवत्वात् — Shiva is called so because He embodies auspiciousness.
. मङ्गलं शिवमित्युक्तं तस्मात् शिव उच्यते — He is the source of all auspiciousness.
. शिवः सच्चिदानन्दरूपः — He is the embodiment of existence (Sat), consciousness (Chit), and bliss (Ananda).

Shiva is also known by other names:

. Shankara (शङ्कर) — शं करोति इति शङ्करः (One who brings auspiciousness).
. Rudra (रुद्र) — रुदं द्रावयति इति रुद्रः (One who removes suffering and sorrow) and रुदन्ति इति रुद्रः (One who makes enemies weep).

The Isha Upanishad (ईशोपनिषत्), also known as Ishavasya Upanishad, describes the Supreme as “तद्दूरे तद्वन्तिके”, meaning it is both far away and yet very near. This expresses the paradox of the divine—it is beyond reach, yet always present.

By using “तत्” (That) in the first and second lines, the Upanishad, in summarizing the Vedas, emphasizes that no matter how much one understands, the Supreme remains infinitely vast and beyond full comprehension. It is something that can be known, yet also unknowable—always beyond human grasp. It is complete in itself, containing everything, yet everything without it remains incomplete, for it defines all that exists.

Shaivism asserts that Shiva is 'that'—the ultimate reality—but different branches interpret this in their own ways. A spectrum of concepts and interpretations emerges from the existential and interactive relationship between Shiva, the immaterial existence, and the material existence. As a result, different forms of Shaivism vary in their degree of conformity to the Vedas and their acceptance of the Vedas as the supreme authority of truth. Kashmiri Trika Shaivism respects the Vedas, whereas Lingayata Shaivism rejects them, though it appears to borrow certain concepts from them.

2. Kashmiri Shaivism

Kashmiri Shaivism has several sects. The earlier form (before the 8th-9th century AD) was the Pashupata sect, part of Aagamanta Shaivism, which followed a dualistic approach. After this period, Kashmiri Shaivism evolved into a more non-dualistic (Advaitic) philosophy, known as Trika Shaastra, which teaches idealistic monism.

As Rabindranath Tagore said, "Kashmir Shaivism has penetrated to that depth of living thought where diverse currents of human wisdom unite in luminous synthesis."

Trika Shaastra – The Essence of Kashmiri Shaivism

Trika Shastra, the Kashmiri Shaivism of the post-9th century A.D., was founded by the sage Vasugupta and later developed by Kallata, Somadeva, Utpaladeva, Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja. In recent times, Swami Lakshman Joo and Mark Dyczkowski have contributed to the propagation of Kashmiri Shaivism through scholarly exposition, bringing it into a modern international context. Trika Shastra should not be mistaken for the Advaita philosophy of Shri Shankaracharya. It is called so, because it:

. (A) discusses three main subjects: (1) The nature of the Absolute, (2) The nature of the human being and the bondage and (3) The method by which the bondage is overcome
. (B) accepts 3 Agamas: (1) 16 Shaiva Agamas, (2) 18 Rudra Agamas, (3) 64 Bhairava Agamas
. (C) accepts 3 tantras: (1) Namakatantra, (2) Siddhatantra and (3) Malinitantra
. (D) accepts trinity of reality: (1) Shiva, (2) Shakti and (3) Nara
. (E) accepts the transcendental triad in Pramashiva: (1) Prakasha, (2) Vimarsa and (3) Samarasya.

In essence, Trika Shaivism presents a comprehensive spiritual framework, blending philosophy, practice, and sacred texts to explain the nature of reality and the path to liberation. It is based on three key philosophies: Agama, Spanda and Pratyabhijna Shastra.

. Agama Shaastra: Describes the Shiva Sutras as a divine conversation between Shiva and Shakti, revealed to the sage Vasugupta in the 9th century A.D.
. Spanda Shaastra: Explains the universe as a system of vibrations (naada) and explores the connection between the source of vibration (Shiva) and the vibrations themselves. It expands on the Shiva Sutras through the Spanda Kaarika text, which has several important commentaries - notable ones are Vivrti by Ramakanta, Pradeepika by Utpala Vaishnava, Spanda Sandaha by Kshemaraja and Spanda Nirnaya by Kshemaraja.
. Pratyabhijna Shaastra: Developed by Abhinavagupta, this philosophy teaches self-recognition (pratyabhijna)—the realization that the individual is already one with Shiva but has not yet recognized it. It emphasizes direct cognition rather than ritualistic practice.

In the 20th century, Swami Lakshmanjoo further refined and expanded Trika Shaastra.

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3. Karnataka’s Lingayata Tradition: A Shaiva Movement

The Lingaayata tradition is a Shaiva tradition that was founded by Basavanna as part of a larger social reform movement. Before Basavanna, the Veera Shaivism tradition had already existed in Karnataka, founded by Renukacharya. In his book titled “The Lingayat Movement: A Social Revolution in Karnataka,” Shri S. M. Hunashal states that the masses of 12th century Karnataka needed inspiration to act and that the existing theology of Shankaracharya, engulfed in the Maya view of life, did not meet these needs.

While there is ongoing debate about whether Veerashaivas and Lingaayats were primarily anti-Brahmanical, it is important to note that during their formative years, the Lingaayats were more critical of the theologies and practices of Jainism and Buddhism than Brahmanism

Below is a brief timeline of the major religious and philosophical movements that shaped the cultural and spiritual landscape of Karnataka:

. Buddhism (3rd century BCE to 10th century CE): Influential historical figures include Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, the Shatavahana rulers, Kadamba dynasty, Badami Chalukyas, and the Rashtrakuta Empire, all of whom supported and spread Buddhism in Karnataka.
. Jainism (2nd to 4th century BCE): Notable figures in the spread of Jainism include Emperor Chandragupta Maurya at Shravanabelagola, Bhadrabahu, and the Kadamba rulers of Banavasi. Jainism continued to thrive in the 5th through 10th centuries CE, with significant support from King Durvinita, the Rashtrakutas, King Amoghavarsha (who composed the text Kavirajamarga), as well as the Hoysalas and Kalachuris.
. Vedantic Advaita Siddhanta (8th century CE): Founded by Adi Shankaracharya, this philosophy is an idealist form of monism. It was well-established by the 11th century CE, and though it is typically associated with Vaishnavism, it has influenced many spiritual and philosophical discussions.
. Lingayatism (11th century CE): Basavanna founded Lingayatism, an offshoot of Shaivism. This movement spread primarily through Vachana Sahitya, authored by Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Chennabasava, and others. The movement emphasized a strong devotional practice towards Shiva.
. Vedantic Vishishtadvaita Siddhanta (10th century CE): Founded by Ramanujacharya, this philosophy represents qualified monism and is a form of Vaishnavism.
. Vedantic Dvaita Siddhanta (12th century CE): Founded by Madhwacharya, Dvaita Siddhanta is a dualistic philosophy associated with Vaishnavism, emphasizing the theistic duality between God and the individual soul.

Lingayatism and its Social Reform Agenda

The Lingayat movement, which began in the 11th century A.D., initially acted as a bhakti movement dedicated to Shiva, but it was more a response to the entrenched practices of Jainism and Buddhism than an opposition to Brahmanism. Basavanna, the founder of the Lingayat movement, was initially a Brahmin who later rejected his Brahminical identity. He sought to uplift the broader community, which likely included converts from Jainism and Buddhism into Shaivism. The Lingayat community worked towards the abolition of the class system and offered equal rights to women in the worship of Shiva, marking a social and spiritual revolution. The Lingayat movement reshaped Karnataka’s religious and philosophical landscape. It moved the region from a stronghold of Buddhist and Jain ideologies into the embrace of Sanatana Dharma and Shaivism, bringing devotion to Shiva to the forefront of spiritual practice.

Notable figures who contributed to vachana sahitya are Basavanna, Akkamahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Chenna basavanna, Jedara Dasimayya, Siddarama, Machu Revanna, Aydakki Lakkamma, Kinnari Mommayya, Madivala Machideva, Madara Chennayya, etc

4. Summary

I summarise my article in the below points rather than having to provide a running text, for purposes of brevity and clarity.

. Kashmiri Trika Shaivism originated in Kashmir, while Lingayata Shaivism was founded in Karnataka.
. Kashmiri Trika Shaivism is based on the Shiva Sutras, while Lingayata Shaivism was developed by Basavanna through the Vachanas.
. Both traditions have been pivotal in preserving and defending the Vedic Sanatana Dharma, standing strong against the spread of Buddhism and Jainism.
. Kashmiri Trika Shaivism primarily focused on elevating the individual’s consciousness to that of Shiva through deep metaphysical concepts and tantric practices. Lingayata Shaivism, on the other hand, focused on social reform, addressing societal issues, and challenging social injustices faced by certain communities.

5. References

1. J. Rudrappa, Kashmir Shaivism. Prasaranga, University of Mysore, Mysore, 1969.
2. Swami Shankarananda, Consciousness is everything: The yoga of Kashmir Shaivism. Shaktipat Press, 2003.
3. Swami Muktananda, Introduction to Kashmir Shaivism. Guridev Siddha Peeth, Ganeshpuri, 1975.
4. N. K. Singh, Saivism in Kashmir. Gulshan publishers, Srinagar, Kashmir, 2000.
5. Gavin D Flood. Body and Cosmology in Kashmir Shaivism. Mellen research university press, San Francisco, 1993.
6. Mr. S. M. Hunashal, The Lingayat Movement: A social revolution in Karnatak.Jagadguru Murusaviramath Publication No. 12. Karnataka sahitya Mandira, Dharwar. 1947.
7. James Aerthayil. Virashaivism – a saivite revolution in Karnataka. Dharmaram Vidya Kshetram, Bengalore.
8. Shri. Kumaraswamiji, The Veerashaiva philosophy and Mysticism. Tontadarya press, Dharwar, 1947.
9. S. S. Basavanaala (Editor), Veerashaiva tatvaprakaasha. Sahitya samiti, Lingaayata vidyaabhivruddhi samsthe, 1941